The purpose of this blog is to provide a platform for accessible information about public health. When it comes to health and well-being, people can often get led on by advertisements trying to sell a product or bogged down by technical jargon.
Well not here!
This site is a place where information comes from trusted and reliable sources. Transparency and honesty are valued principles and knowledge is key.
I am an active learner with a strong interest in public health & well-being. I plan to document my journey as I teach myself about public health while sharing what I have learned along the way. You can expect to find:
Walking through the sliding doors that led into the emergency department, I had little idea what the next three hours would hold.
The moment that had me feeling oddly nervous and excited all day at work had finally arrived. I tried to imagine what my shift would be like. What will I see? Would I actually be working with patients? Would I just be cleaning wheelchairs?
With my purple volunteer jacket tucked under my arm and my most comfortable Nikes on my feet, I walked up to the front desk.
After explaining who I was, the woman who would I would later discover to be my trainer waved me through another set of doors into the ED.
“Nice to meet you” she said through the granola bar in her mouth. “Why do you want to volunteer?” She asked quickly. I jumped in telling her how I was interested in public health and how I simply wanted to get more involved in my community. After that, we chatted on as as she began showing me around.
The first couple moments in the ED were captivating. I looked around and tried to take in every detail. I half expected to see a fury of doctors, nurses and staff sprinting dramatically through the halls to save their next patient – perhaps this was due to a minor Grey’s Anatomy addiction during my college years.
The real life ED was certainly nothing like you see on tv. Yes, there was a relatively constant stream of new patients, however they were not all barging through the doors barely clinging to life and screaming for help. I felt an air of ambivalence because there was so much activity going on yet there was a simplicity to the environment. There was the sense of urgency that you would expect in an ED, yet the staff was so well versed that they moved around with a comforting ease.
One of the most notable moments of my ED tour was walking through the “code room.” For those that don’t know, a code is a sort of slang term referring to a patient who is in cardiopulmonary arrest. Thus, these rooms are typically used in intense medical situations.
Walking into that room was surreal. It was stocked and prepped for an emergency, but at this moment it was empty and calm. When the code room is being used for its intended purpose, it becomes a completely different environment. I tried to imagine the stresses, anxiety and intense human emotions that regularly pass through that space.
Standing in that room, I was humbled. My very feet were planted where doctors and nurses fought for human lives and where others have fought for their own lives. I wondered if anyone would need that room during my shift that night. I hoped it wouldn’t be needed – I wasn’t sure if I would be ready.
The rest of my grand tour was interspersed between helping patients and learn the ropes. The nature of patient issues that came through the ED were hardly uniform. I observed everything from children getting sutures to adults with cardiac issues, anxiety attacks, throat infections and everything in between. My curious mind soaked up every bit of information that I could retain.
The entire night I kept finding myself appreciating this great opportunity. As I reflect back, here are a few great nuggets of advice that I found to be of the most value:
Talk to everyone: doctors, nurses, PAs. Make as many friends as you can.
Get involved. Ask questions, ask to observe, ask to help. Be a sponge. You never know what you might learn.
If you don’t feel comfortable doing something, don’t do it. Be aware of yourself and what you can handle. But, don’t get too comfortable where you become complacent.
These points are great advice for volunteering in the ED, but I also found them applicable for life in general.
Volunteering your time can provide such rewarding experiences. Jump in and try it. If it’s not for you, then try something new. The key is to get out there and taste everything.
It’s safe to say that in those three hours I learned a lot. The sky is the limit for the rest of my time as an Emergency Department volunteer and I can’t wait to see what the future holds.
My alma mater Longwood University is the host of THE Vice Presidential debate 2016!
Main Street Farmville, Virginia.As a graduate of Longwood University and a citizen of Farmville for four years, I feel as though I have a duty to showcase the greatness of these two places. Something as grand as this deserves a post no matter what sort of blog you run!
While this article will focus on a topic that diverts from the usual science-related posts on this blog, it will still be interesting and educational!
Join me as we dig into the fascinating history of Farmville, Virginia.
Longwood University is located in Farmville, Virginia – a town whose rich historical importance reaches from the civil war era to the civil rights era. Several events that have shaped our nation took place within miles of downtown Farmville.
To say that Farmville deserves the spotlight is to speak lightly. It’s charm and unique history are one of a kind.
So what better time to show off this town, than during a one of a kind election?
As the eyes of the nation are on Farmville and Longwood, people from all over the country will be able to see the unique culture and history that these two have to offer.
Where in the world is Farmville, Virginia?
The town of Farmville is nestled in the geographic center of the beautiful state of Virginia. In contrast to the metropolitan hubs of the surrounding Richmond, Lynchburg, and northern Virginia areas, Farmville has a good ol’ small town feel.
The town itself is just about as small as it sounds. It is centered around Main Street which boasts a strip of unique, locally owned small businesses.
Believe it or not there is more than one stoplight! Farmville is also a home to the typical corporates like: Walmart, Mcdonalds, and Starbucks to accommodate the college students and local community.
Farmville may be small, but it’s far from boring. It is dotted with a wealth of unique quirks and history that makes it different from any other place on earth. Here’s a short list of Farmville distinctions:
Longwood University est. 1839
High Bridge State Park – a former railroad line turned recreational trail that runs through town.
Robert Russa Moton Museum – Former high school for black students during the time of discrimination.
Longwood Center for the Visual Arts (LCVA)
LOVE sign
Appomattox river
First ever 2 college town in the US (Longwood university & Hampden Sydney College)
Green Front furniture
6 places listed in the National Register of Historic Places
Birthplace of 4 sororities – Farmville Four: Sigma Sigma Sigma, Kappa Delta, Zeta Tau Alpha, Alpha Sigma Alpha.
High Bridge Trail
Local Artwork
Four Sororities Founded
LOVE sign on Main Street
Farmville has a very special place in history
While the name “Farmville” may evoke memories of the popular Facebook game, it would conjure up very different memories for people who lived there in the past.
Spanning decades worth of history, several significant historical events have occurred in this small town. In this section we will journey back in time to rediscover two very pivotal moments in United States history that happened on Farmville’s own soil.
Farmville and the American Civil War
Farmville played an important role in the final days of the Civil war. The final major battle of the war happened at Sayler’s creek not far from downtown Farmville. Robert E. Lee and his confederate army retreated directly through the streets of Farmville and ended up in nearby Appomattox, Virginia.
The McLean House in the Appomattox Court House National Historic Park.It was on April 9th, 1865 in the McLean house of Appomattox Court House that General Lee officially surrendered to Ulysses S.Grant to end the civil war.
Today, a statue of a confederate soldier stands across from the University’s iconic Ruffner rotunda as a historical reminder of civil war history in the town.
Farmville and the Civil Rights Movement
Jump forward a few decades and Farmville was at the center of attention once again. This time the year is 1951 and 16 year-old Barbara Johns is leading a student strike at Robert Russa Moton High School. Her cause?
Barbara Johns (right) and her teacher.Equality. To fight for better learning conditions for African-American students in Prince Edward County.
The facilities provided to African-American students at this time were far inferior to those of students at the “whites-only” Farmville High School. Moton High School lacked a gymnasium, cafeteria, an auditorium with fixed seating, and lockers. The school was built with a capacity for 180 but contained 450 students by the year 1950.
Young Barbara Johns did not sit by and accept inequality, rather she crafted a movement that snowballed into great change.
Eventually the movement created by Johns led to Davis v. School Board of Prince Edward County. This case was important because it sought after more than just equal facilities, it challenged Virginia’s laws that required segregated schools. The case was ultimately appealed up to the U.S Supreme Court and combined with four other cases under Brown v. Board of Education.
After the Brown decision, things actually got worse in Prince Edward County before they got better. Rather than allow black and white students to attend school together, the county board of supervisors abolished public education altogether.
Virginia Senator Harry Byrd led a policy of “massive resistance” to court-mandated integration in the state.
As a result, money was provided from segregationists to allow for the establishment of segregated white private schools. The county even went so far as to create a school voucher plan to ensure that white parents could afford to send their children to the newly established private school.
Meanwhile, students of color were left with no means of education. Prince Edward County’s stubborn opposition to desegregation even led to visits to Farmville from activists like Martin Luther King Jr. and Roy Wilkins.
These extreme acts of discrimination went on for five years until the county was forced to reopen the public schools by the Supreme Court in 1964.
Modern day Moton MuseumToday, Moton High School has been transformed into Robert Russa Moton Museum and holds the distinction of a National Historic Landmark.
It stands as a living tribute to honor and showcase the people who stood up for equality and civil rights. It serves to highlight courage and strength and beckons us all to be the change you wish to see.
As you enter the parking lot, the building is hard to miss with it’s artful mural that depicts a timeline of it’s history.
The work put into the museum is further appreciated when you walk inside. One feels as though they are in the moment of history as they walk through galleries filled stories, quotes and pictures. Staffed with wonderful people and recently expanded, the Moton museum is a must see when you visit Farmville.
Moton Mural
Longwood is Making Moves
This wouldn’t be a post about Farmville if I didn’t mention Longwood University.
The institution was originally established in 1839 as the Farmville Female Seminary Association. In 1949 it became Longwood College – still an all female school. Then in 1976 it officially became coed. Finally, Longwood College became Longwood University in 2002.
Iconic Ruffner Rotunda at Longwood UniversityLongwood boasts a public school identity with a private school feel. Class sizes average around 21 students with a 17:1 student to teacher ratio.
Longwood offers a variety of fields of study that includes a world class teaching program which dates back to 1839.
Additionally, the university’s MBA online program was voted one of the best in the nation by U.S. News and World Report.
Brock commons Longwood University
Ruffner Fountain Longwood University
As a supplement to the strong academic programs, Longwood athletics are Division 1 and the university joined the Big South Conference in 2012.
The best thing about Longwood is it’s desire to create citizen leaders. Students participate in over 58,000 hours of volunteering via community outreach & student organizations.
To continue it’s growth, the university is planning some major upgrades and expansion with it’s master plan. The changes will improve campus and nurture connections between the university and the local community.
The VP debate will put Longwood on the national stage-where it deserves to be.
The town of Farmville has always been a place for change. Rooted civil war and civil rights history, Farmville deserves to be known as more than a Facebook game.
On the streets of Farmville, Virginia where pivotal history has occurred and figures like Martin Luther King Jr. and Patrick Henry once walked, so too will the next Vice President of the United States.
Be sure to tune in to witness history on October 5, 2016!
Do the headlines blur and the endless streams of information about Zika suffocate you?
Relax. Breathe easy.
I have done the digging and trimmed the fat to bring you a clean overview of current Zika research. We will journey behind the whir and blur of media headlines and discover what scientists are doing to learn more about the emerging concern called “the Zika virus.”
This post will provide you with a foundation to understand the research that is being performed on Zika and will hopefully lead you to ask questions and discover more on your own.
Zooming into Zika Research
Going behind the scenes of Zika research we discover that the process of understanding the virus has been all but simple. Scientists spanning the continents are working around the clock to gain a firmer grasp on the virus.
Of all of the research being performed there are 3 main concepts & questions that seem to grab the spotlight:
What sort of effects does Zika have on the body?
How can Zika’s spread be controlled?
How can we develop vaccines & treatments?
Feel free to read all the way through or jump around to sections that interest you.
1. Zika’s Effects on the Body
Scientists are working feverishly to understand the virus’s full potential to cause disease.
Prior to entering the limelight, Zika was believed to only cause mild, flu-like symptoms. However it is now being linked to more serious issues like – developmental diseases in newborn babies:
Guillain–Barré syndrome
Microcephaly
Arthrogryposis
More to be discovered?
Microcephaly
Guillain–Barré Syndrome
Arthrogryposis
These are several examples of permanent, life-altering diseases that can develop as a result of a Zika infection. Scientists believe that mothers who have been infected by the virus can bear children with these developmental diseases.
In April the CDC declared “a casual relationship” between the virus and brain abnormalities. Researchers are now using animal models (macaques & mice) to pinpoint a direct correlation between Zika and developmental defects in newborns. Once links are discovered in mice and primates, scientists will then find how the results can relate to humans.
Zika’s underlying mechanisms
Equally as important – researchers hope to figure out the exact mechanisms that allow the Zika virus to function:
Why does a mother’s infection harm a fetus?
Can we prevent the damage?
Can we treat damage after it is done?
What mechanism does Zika use to cause disease (pathogenesis)
Finding answers to these questions will help protect individuals from infection and will ultimately lead to a healthier public and a stronger understanding of the disease.
2. Controlling the Spread of Zika
Genetically Modified Mosquitoes
The most promising way to combat Zika is to control it’s spread. This can be achieved in a variety of ways: vaccinations, insecticides, physical barriers.
In a newly developed approach – and perhaps the most controversial – scientists have developed a new way to control zika by modifying it’s transmitter – the Aedes aegypti mosquito.
Here’s how it works:
Male mosquitoes are brought into the lab. Their DNA is genetically modified to contain a “self-limiting” trait.
The males are released into the wild to mate with female mosquitoes.The self-limiting trait is then passed down to their offspring who will not make it to adulthood – as a result of the genetic modification.
Scientists logically conclude:
No viable offspring, no new generation, no population of Zika carrying mosquitoes, less likelihood of human infection.
Pretty innovative idea right? Bioengineering is a hotbed for innovation. It’s potential for creating solutions is powerful so it makes sense to use it to fight Zika.
Oxitec is the company behind the science of GM mosquitoes and they have already begun testing the efficacy of their approach. They claim that results have shown a 90% reduction of the wild mosquito population in areas where studies have already been performed.
Things are moving fast.
Armed with blessings from the CDC, researchers are already looking to release GM mosquitoes in a small Florida town very soon to test their efficacy.
The CDC has deemed GM mosquitoes safe and effective, but citizens are not convinced. In the Florida town where the study is slated to happen, a petition has been formed to fight the release of GM mosquitoes in the neighborhoods.
Good or bad?
It is important to understand the situation from all angles. Yes the CDC deems the GM mosquito safe, however no one can truly the effects of the GM mosquito until they are released and studies are done.
GM mosquitoes could have unprecedented consequences or absolutely none at all.
On the other hand, mosquitoes do need to be controlled if we hope to stop the spread of Zika. GM mosquitoes are on track to be the most promising route.
3. Developing vaccines, treatments, and diagnostic tests
In the race to create a successful vaccine, scientists are navigating creative avenues and utilizing various methodologies.
While the process is not easy, researchers do have one great advantage – an excellent starting place.
Scientists have opted to begin vaccine development for Zika by mimicking techniques that are used to create vaccines for other flaviviruses similar to Zika: Dengue and West Nile virus.
The following approaches are currently being pursued:
Mechanism of DNA-based vaccines.
DNA-based vaccine – an exciting and newly emerging innovation that activates the immune system with copies of Zika DNA.
A small piece of DNA, called a plasmid, is designed by scientists to contain the exact genes that code for Zika proteins.
When these proteins are injected into a patient, virus-like particles are created. The body will identify them as foreign and mount an immune response. The immune system supply itself with an army of antibodies and T-cells to prevent infection.
The beauty in this approach lies in the fact that no actual pieces of the virus are injected into a patient so there is no risk of infection from the vaccine.
A Phase 1 clinical trial is already underway to determine the safety of the vaccine. 80 people in the US, ages 18-35 will be given the vaccine. The vaccine will move to a larger Phase II clinical trial in 2017 if it meets safety and efficacy expectations.
Live-attenuated vaccine
The NIAID (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases) is developing a vaccine that looks more like the vaccines we are used to seeing. Live-attenuated vaccines contain an actual piece of the virus that is weakened and unable to cause disease.
A similar approach was used to create a safe vaccine for Dengue and scientists plan to use it as template for developing a vaccine for Zika. This type of vaccine is likely to take a longer period of time to develop.
A fully tested and safe vaccine will probably take at least a year. However it could prove to be the most effective vaccine because it’s mechanism of action is most similar to an actual infection.
Other vaccines in the works
— Emergent Biosolutions is a company that operates within CIADM (Center for Innovation in Advanced Development and Manufacturing.) They have received $21.9 million dollars in funding to work on developing a an early-stage vaccine.
Emergent’s head of research and development, Barbara Solow says: “This is the third time now the government has come to us under [the BARDA contract] and asked us to manufacture for them to meet a public health crisis,” Emergent has had success working on other major biodefense projects relating to concerns like: Anthrax and Ebola.
— GlaxoSmithKline, a British pharmaceutical company is partnering with the NIH to develop novel vaccine technology called self-amplifying mRNA (SAM). The research and development for this vaccine could take up to 10-15 years. But once the RNA vaccine technology is perfected it could mean faster and cheaper manufacturing in the future.
Controversy & Additional Thoughts
Simply put – a great deal of time, effort, and money is being poured into Zika research. It is important to realize the depth of resources that are being spent on this research.
There is a small notion that the Zika epidemic has been orchestrated by both governments and medical organizations alike.
I am not here to take a stance on this debate, only to share what is known and what is being discovered about Zika.
I will say that it is extremely important for all people to be involved, informed, and safe. The best way to do this is to be armed with knowledge.
Rather than letting some fear of inevitable infection or fear of government conspiracy control you, simply arm yourself with truthful knowledge and let your own intuition lead you.
Much like it’s transmitter, the Zika virus has been generating a lot of buzz around the world. The name sweeps through conversations in coffee shops, around dinner tables and throughout hospitals. It has even occupied the minds of health officials all around the globe.
Since it’s most recent outbreak, Zika has become a name almost synonymous with concern. However, before it’s time in the limelight Zika had humble beginnings in the Zikka Forest, a Ugandan forest from which the virus received it’s name. In Ugandan language “Ziika” translates to “overgrown”and by all means it has overgrown the boundaries of it’s birthplace.
The virus is now spreading throughout the world by hitching rides from mosquito vectors and human travelers.
It wasn’t until 2007 that researchers began to seriously study the virus. The year 2007 brought the first outbreak of the disease to areas outside of Africa and Asia.
An epidemic of Zika cases broke out on the island of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia. Up until this time cases of Zika were quite rare. Thus before Zika began its more widespread movement around the globe, it received only meager attention in regards to research studies.
Map showing the spread of Zika since it’s discovery.
This post aims to give a clear but thorough overview of the Zika virus.
What is Zika?
The Zika virus belongs to the flavivirusfamily. Very similar to the structure of the biological taxonomic system, viruses follow a classification system that is broken down as follows: Order, Family, Subfamily, Genus, Species.
Microscopic image of Zika virus.
Dengue, yellow fever, and West Nile are other common flaviviruses that may sound familiar.
This is important to note.
It is suspected that many cases of Zika infection went (and continue to go) unreported because Zika’s symptoms present themselves in ways that are very similar to other viruses in the flavivirus family. For this reason a deeper understanding of Zika was delayed from manifestation.
Symptoms of the Zika virus
Fever
Rash
Joint pain
conjunctivitis (red eyes)
As you can see the clinical symptoms are fairly typical of the common flu. What’s amazing is how a several viruses can present themselves in such similar ways but actually be different species.
Zika has several means of transmission
Vector-bourne transmission. The primary medium of transmission is via 2 Aedes species mosquitoes (Aedesaegypti& Aedesalbopictus).Aedes aegypti mosquito
Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on a person who already has the virus. These newly infected mosquitoes then feed on another person and the cycle of infection continues.
Mother to child. Women who are pregnant at the time of infection can pass the virus onto her offspring both during pregnancy or at the time of birth. Zika can cause microcephaly and other life-long birth defects.
Bodily Fluids. Zika can be transmitted from person to person through a number of different fluids: blood, semen, vaginal fluids, urine. It has not yet been discovered if breastfeeding milk is included in this list.
Why we worry about Zika
The most concerning issue with Zika is not it’s primary symptoms which tend to be nothing more than flu-like manifestations. Rather, the effects that it can have on unborn babies is the most worrisome aspect of the virus. In fact, many people that are infected with the virus do not show any symptoms. That is what makes it so scary.
Zika is suspected to cause a medley of neurological issues in newborn babies. Microcephaly is just one condition that we have heard a lot about since the outbreak of Zika. Microcephaly is really just a technical term to describe babies who are born with heads that are smaller than normal.
However its not just a small head, the deformity can indicate brain damage, life-long learning issues, and mental disabilities. Additionally, some babies can have hearing or visual impairments even with a normal head circumference.
While microcephaly is the resulting condition that has gained the most media exposure, scientists are beginning to find links between Zika and other diseases.
Arthrogryposis is a condition that is emerging as another possible consequence of Zika infection during pregnancy. Babies born with arthrogryposis have joints that are very stiff or even completely immobile.
More time and research is needed to understand Zika
The most pressing issue with Zika is the lack steadfast information that scientists have on the virus. Dr. Edward McCabe – Medical Director for the March of Dimes stated: “Microcephaly is the tip of the iceberg.” He went on to say that some babies have shown no signs of microcephaly but develop seizures and other neurological issues.
As further studies and research are performed, we will soon be able to paint a clearer picture of the full range of effects of Zika. For now the best things that individuals can do is to take preventative measures and protect themselves from getting infected in the first place.
How Prevent and Protect from Zika
Dr. Edward McCabe is leading a social media movement called #ZapZika that aims to facilitate information that will help protect individuals and their family members from Zika. Take some time to review this list learn how to take the proper precautions against the Zika virus.
Inform yourself with facts about Zika. Be knowledgeable of the signs and symptoms of an infected person. If you are traveling, know the prevalence of Zika in the area to which you are visiting. CDC, WHO, NIH have great websites to find more information about the virus.
Use condoms or other infection barriers to reduce chance of transmission through sex.
Do your best to avoid mosquito bites. Wear clothing that covers your skin, use insect repellent, use physical barriers (mesh netting), stay clear of mosquito breeding sites.
Remember knowledge is power and it is the key to being safe and healthy!
I will be posting a follow up to this post that will go into detail about research that is being done to understand and combat Zika. It will be exciting to dig through the methods that are currently being taken to tackle this new global health concern (hint, hint GMO mosquitos). There will surely be some talk about all of the innovative and creative thinking that is going on. So stay tuned!
Naloxone (branded as NARCAN) is a life-saving drug that instantly reverses opioid overdoses and saves lives. This drug is truly a mark of cutting edge, 21st century medicine and it is struggling to become widely available to doctors, paramedics, and family members of addicts all around the US. So how exactly does this “miracle drug” work? That is what I aim to investigate here.
Naloxone prepared in it’s injectable form.
This post blossomed from inspiration that I found as I was scrolling on Twitter a few days ago. I tapped on a link to a Business Insider article titled: “Big Pharma is jacking up the price of the ‘antidote’ to the overdose crisis.” As I began to skim the words my full attention was grabbed rather quickly. For three reasons in particular:
The writing was captivating, it was informative and interesting so I kept reading.
I have a growing interest in big pharma and their ever-controversial drug pricing.
I found myself wondering what scientific mechanism allows Naloxone to perform it’s life-saving duties.
My interest was so piqued that I decided to research more about the drug.
Mechanism?
You may be wondering what I exactly meant by “scientific mechanism.” Allow me to briefly explain my usage of this phrase. My junior year of undergraduate school I took a course in Vertebrate Physiology. The structure of the class was rather unconventional in that our grades were solely made up of 5 exams – all open note and open textbook, laptops were even allowed.
Sounds like a dream come true right? Not quite.
My professor notably stated: “Please don’t use Google, but even if you did it probably wouldn’t help you much.” He was right because this was no ordinary exam. There were no multiple choice questions, only 8 long answer prompts that posed real life issues. In class we were given the facts, but on the exam we had to think critically to engineer an answer. We couldn’t just write down facts to answer these questions, we had to piece them together and explain our answers in a way that reasonably made sense. We had to understand the underlying mechanisms.
But what is so important about learning a mechanism?
Mechanisms determine the facts.Once you know the mechanism then you can truly understand the fact. When you understand how something works you can really know that something is true. Consider reading the following line in a textbook: “The sky is blue.”
Yes, that is certainly true. It’s a fact.
But why and how is that true? To really understand this fact we would need to study the mechanism that makes the sky blue. What molecules, atoms, and compounds are present in the atmosphere? How are they interacting with each other to make that true? What chemical reactions are taking place? Answering all of these questions would lead you to find out what actually makes the sky blue.
So what does all this mechanism talk have to do with drugs? Well every drug has a way that it works in the body. There is a specific mechanism to be understood to explain why and how it works. In our case the fact is: Naloxone reverses drug overdoses. This post aims to decipher the mechanism that makes this fact true.
Here’s the nitty gritty science stuff:
First let’s discuss how opioids work in the human body. Drug opioids adopt a mechanism where they mimic the body’s naturally produced neurotransmitters and bind to receptors in the brain.You see, neurotransmitters are necessary because neurons do not actually touch one another. A signal is sent along a neuron, when it reaches the tiny space (synaptic cleft) between neurons a neurotransmitter is released and sent across to the receiving neuron. That is how a connection is made.
You can thank neurotransmitters for triggering countless necessary responses in your body; from hormone releases to muscle contractions.
Opioids in drugs act just like these naturally occurring compounds and bind to the same receptors that normally accept neurotransmitters. It is essentially a way to “cheat” the brain’s wiring system and produce the same effects of a natural compound, but with a medication.
To envision the way that receptors work, I always think of the traditional toy that teaches shapes to children. Not only does it teach shapes, it teaches practicality. The square block fits in the square hole, the circle in the circle.
You could also think of it as a lock and key. The key must match the lock in order for the lock to work. For this reason only the correct substrate will fit and bind to it’s appropriate receptor. Opioid drugs have found a way to copy the key and open the same lock.
Once a receptor has been bound to a substrate (either the natural neurotransmitter or the opioid from the drug) it undergoes a process that produces a response in the body. In this case, they send signals to the body to help to relieve pain and slow breathing. While the human body creates it’s own compounds that trigger these reactions when it deems they are needed, it cannot produce enough opioids to overdose itself – phew good thing! This is just one of the many checks and balances systems that keeps the body in homeostasis.
An issue arises when too many opioids are brought in through an external source i.e. morphine, oxycodone. The body surpasses its threshold and is unable to detoxify the substance quickly enough at such high levels, thus overdose occurs.
Can you see the similarities?
This is where our Batman (Naloxone) swoops into Gotham (the human body) and saves the day. While the precise pathway is still yet to be completely elucidated, it is believed that Naloxone’s mechanism of action works by competing with opioids for receptor binding sites (µ, κ and σ opiate receptor sites in the central nervous system.)
In this way Naloxone will take the place of opioids and essentially not let them bind to receptors in the brain. Instead of the opioids freely binding to the receptors and overloading them, Naloxone is already sitting there, bound to the receptor. Naloxone has a higher binding affinity than the opioid. This means that Naloxone has a stronger connection to the receptor than the opioid does.
Visual illustration of Naloxone’s mechanism of action.
What’s amazing is that this complex, life-saving drug actually works by means of simple competition. The opioids from the drug compete with the Naloxone for binding sites and Naloxone wins- no more overloading the receptor circuit. When a lot of people think of pharmaceuticals and medications they don’t realize the simplicity that may be occurring.
Naloxone has a lot of answers, but some question its use.
Besides it’s remarkable ability to save lives, Naloxone is also highly regarded because of it’s lack of agnostic effects:
Does no harm if it is administered to a person who is not actually undergoing an overdose.
Does not produce a high, so no opportunity to be abused.
New forms are quickly being developed – nasal sprays.
Naloxone is leading to important yet controversial implications. It saves lives, there is no doubt about that. However, some are beginning to question it’s role in the lives of addicts. Could it be enabling their addiction because they know that there is an antidote to bring them back from an overdose? This is what some individuals seem to think. Of course this is a logical place for someone’s thoughts to land, however it seems horrendous to undermine the usage of this drug.
If lives can be saved, save them.
Sure some people may use Naloxone in a never ending cycle of overdose, revival, overdose, revival. But imagine second chances that it can illicit.
An addict wakes up in the hospital once again to see the tear-streaked faces of their loved ones crowded around them, who are relieved to see them come back to consciousness. That day they decide that this is the last time they will put this strain on their family. Come 4 years later they are clean, married with children to whom they mean the world.They’re happy. Their lives and their family’s lives completely changed by the availability of Naloxone. Now that is the mark of a revolutionary drug with a mechanism worth understanding.
Imagine a life where you grow up looking at your world through a lens that shows you only 1% of what really exists. From that 1% you have seen amazing things. You’ve learned a lot and grown from the knowledge that the view has provided, BUT you know there is vastly more out there.
You just have to figure out how to see it.
This 1% clarity is what microbiologists are dealing with today and it’s called the Great Plate Count Anomaly. This term might sound like some type of cooking dilemma, but it actually refers to bacteria. A little less appetizing, huh?
The term “Great Plate Count Anomaly” was first coined by Staley and Konopka in 1985 to refer to the difficulty that exists in culturing most species of bacteria. Scientists have estimated that only 1% of all bacterial species are able to be grown in a laboratory setting and thus roughly 99% are unable to be further studied. These “uncultureable” species are also sometimes called “microbial dark matter.”
How are bacteria grown in the lab?
Bacteria are conventionally grown in petri dishes filled with a nutrient agar. Nutrient agars are gelatin-like mediums that are packed with the nutrients bacteria need to grow and thrive. The idea behind using agar as a growth medium stems from scientists knowledge of what certain bacteria require to feel right at home in the lab. Agar typically consists the following list of ingredients:
Peptones – to control pH
Agar – a carbohydrate that aids in solidification
Beef extract – provides the necessary nutrients, vitamins, salts, etc…
Distilled water
Nutrient agar in petri dishes ready for inoculation.
The rest is super simple: boil the mixture of ingredients, pour it into a petri dish, let cool & set then viola! You have a delicious nutrient agar for your hungry bacteria.
In fact, making nutrient agar is so easy that it can be done at home! You can make agar yourself with recipes found online or you can even buy ready made kits.
Why are some bacteria “unculturable”?
Now, nutrient agars have served scientists well in the past. They’ve been able to culture a decent chunk of bacterial species, but an overwhelming majority (99%!) still evade scientific study in the lab. The problem lies in the fact that we currently have such a small understanding of some bacterial needs. What does that bacteria specifically require? Are other bacteria inhibiting their growth? If so, how? What environmental conditions do they require?
Allow me to use a short story to help you visualize some flaws in current culturing methodology:
Close your eyes and imagine yourself relaxing at home one evening. You’re sitting in your favorite chair, wearing your softest hoodie, book in hand, and snacks by your side. You flip open the first page and… suddenly you are plucked right out of your comfortable reality.
You find yourself placed in a dish and thrown a mixture of food: chicken, pizza, some fruit and veggies, chips – ya know all that stuff that humans normally eat.You look around and see some other people who have the same expression of shock plastered across their faces.It takes a couple minutes for you to compose yourself, but then you start to think: “Hmm this might not be a bad gig. I’ve got some food, plenty of space, and people to chat with. I might be able to deal with this.” However, you suddenly realize that you’re having a little trouble breathing… The air is becoming thinner and it smells a little funky. You realize there’s no oxygen! How are you supposed to live without oxygen!? Whoever put you here gave you a variety of food but no oxygen. What are they thinking!?
Instead you’re here breathing in some sort of sulfur mixture. Whoever it was who put you in this dish is able to breathe sulfur so mistakenly, they think you can too. Unfortunately, that’s not the case so you are unable to thrive in this new environment.
This story is based off of the idea that if the tables were turned and bacteria acted the way that we do when we try to grow them in a dish, they would not be successful either. Lets look at some of the flaws in this story:
Environmentalfactors were not taken into account.You were given food to eat, but they were not careful enough to replicate important aspects of your natural environment. Oxygen is essential to your survival and that was not provided. The same is often true with bacteria, sometimes scientists believe that they understand all the needs of a certain species, but are actually missing a few vital components. The answer might be to bring their natural environment into the lab – more on this later.
Next, you were placed in a dish with a variety of people. You may have gotten along fabulously with some, while others might have been violent or territorial. Had the latter been the case, it wouldn’t have mattered if there was oxygen because you would have soon been attacked by other humans. This is similar to the situations that we see with bacteria in petri dishes. Some bacteria secrete enzymes or other compounds that fight off other species. For this reason, it is very difficult to isolate certain bacteria and get them to grow.
A lot of research still remains to be done to discover the specifics for bacterial growth. As one author Edward J. Stewart put it in his ARTICLE: “…microbiologists are failing to replicate essential aspects of their environment.” He goes on to mention that this fact is not because of lack of creativity or cleverness, but because the possibilities are so endless! It takes much time and effort to work out what various types of species require for their growth.
There is hope!
Never fear. Where there is an issue, there is surely a scientist who is determined to find a solution. Slava Epstein is one scientist who decided to tackle this problem head-on, so he set off on a mission to bring “microbial dark matter” to light. Epstein developed a fascination with microorganisms as he was studying ecology in tidal flats.He soon became absorbed with the fact that so many bacterial species were unable to be cultured in the lab. He eventually realized that bringing a bacteria’s natural environment into the lab might render better results than trying to create an artificial one for them. Several different attempts were made by Epstein to create a suitable environment for bacterial growth. He finally ended up creating a new device called “ichip.”
Inside the iChip design.
The technology used for ichip is wonderfully simple and it reveals how breakthrough developments may not always be need to high-tech. Some of the greatest discoveries in history are the result of accidents (penicillin) or low-tech thinking. Michael G. DeGroote wonderfully stated: “You don’t need to have a million dollars worth of equipment. You can go to Home Depot and maybe change the world.” iChip goes to show that you can do amazing things with an idea, passion, and a few things lying around the lab.
iChip being used to collect bacteria in their natural environment.
Kim Lewis is a microbiologist with a similar fascination for this topic and has worked alongside Epstein in the hunt for new cultivation techniques. Together these two have had incredible successes in their attempts at new antibiotic development. Their labs have discovered at least 25 new antibiotics that are new to science. Can you imagine what is left to be discovered?
Epstein’s ichip technology has truly fascinated me. The fact that revolutionary discoveries can be made through low-tech designs has been a long held belief of mine. One of the most difficult things to do is to step back from an issue and try to see it with new eyes. All too often we try to immerse ourselves in the small details and we end up missing the big picture. Of course it is important to understand all angles of an issue, but sometimes the solution is too obvious to see.
In closing I want to quickly discuss the generally negative view that most people have of bacteria. We often think of bacteria as scary, out of control, disease-causing burdens, but the fact is: we need them. It may be true that bacteria cause diseases, but they also cure them. Most of our antibiotics come from one bacterial strain that fights a harmful one. Bacteria also give us food. That’s right. There are forms of bacteria that live in soils and allow our tomatoes, grapes, and cucumbers to be plump and nutritious. Bacteria have also recently been found to eat plastic, aid in biofuel production, detect disease. So lets not write off our microscopic buddies just yet.
With that I leave you with a few thought questions.
Are there other areas of science that people often have misconceptions about?
Can you think of any current issues that might have an obvious solution, but is difficult to see?
Do you know of any other historical discoveries that were the result of an accident or “low-tech” discovery?
Feel free to leave some ideas in the comments! Keep learning and stay connected!
Sound too good to be true? Well let the goodness reign, because at the intersection of biology, graphic design, and computer gaming we find: Foldit. A computer game that has been designed to solve one of science’s biggest problems – protein folding. Straight from the website’s page: “Foldit is a revolutionary crowdsourcing computer game enabling you to contribute to scientific research.” Sounds perfect for this blog right!? I’ll begin with a quick introduction of proteins to help clarify the purpose behind this revolutionary game.
Protein Structure
Figure 1: Amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. Folded into a protein on the right.
Proteins are characterized as polymers which means that they are large macromolecules made up of smaller repeating subunits called monomers. The specific monomers of proteins are amino acids (AA) which are chained together in long strands by peptide bonds that fold to form a protein structure. To visualize this, just think of a long metal chain. The complete chain being the polymer and each link being the monomers (See figure 1). There are 20 different types of amino acids and they all have the same basic structure, but they differ depending on their side chains (figure 2).
Figure 1: Amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. Folded into a protein on the left.
The nature of their side chains is what makes them unique from each other and determines their qualities: They may be hydrophillic (water-loving) or hydrophobic (water-fearing) or a number of other qualities.
Now, I don’t want to get too bogged down in the specific biology of proteins, but if you are interested in learning more here’s a link to a protein packed page:
So why are these strings of molecules so important? Well, the amazing thing about proteins is their ability fold into specific shapes. Their shape determines their function. We owe thanks to proteins because they carry out functions that are vital to many aspects of our lives:
carrying oxygen in blood
breaking down starch from food
allowing our muscles to contract
aiding in DNA replication
helping to send nerve signals
As you can see proteins are the laborers of the body. They are essential to our very existence.
The big mystery with proteins is understanding the way in which they fold. Each protein exists in their lowest energy state (their preferred shape), the trouble is figuring out that exact shape. A small protein of ~100 amino acids can be folded in a great deal of different ways. Now imagine a protein of ~1000 AA’s! As a result, scientists are constantly working to understand the thousands of possible forms. The current means of discovering protein folding is expensive and time consuming – even with the use of computers. Foldit has presented a unique way to speed up the process of discovery with the help of human creativity and puzzle solving abilities that computers simply cannot match.
The basics of the game are laid out like this:
Pack the protein – make it as small as possible.
Hide the hydrophobics – don’t allow hydrophobic sidechains to touch the water and do expose the hydrophilli side chains to the water.
Clear the clashes – Atoms cannot be on top of atoms. Allow sidechains enough room to breathe and you’ll build a better protein.
These three rules are all you need to get started. The better you are able to achieve these requirements, the better your score, the better the protein!
Once you decide to delve into the dynamic world of protein folding all you have to do is download the game, run through the first several tutorial proteins, then begin your journey of scientific discovery.
Its really that easy.
What makes this game awesome is that it is accessible to anyone. In fact, as mentioned on Foldit’s blog, some of the top scorers have no background in biochemistry at all. Foldit gamers have already succeeded in discovering an enzyme related to AIDS that scientists had been working on for years. I challenge you to try it. Go on. Take 15 minutes and whip up an account. Let me know your high score – maybe you beat me!
The development of this game begs the question: What other discoveries can be facilitated in a similar fashion? Let me know your ideas in the comments.
I hope this post has inspired you to do some discovery of your own. May it be about proteins or anything else. Foldit proves that you don’t have to be a master at science to be involved. Always continue to wonder, to question. Be curious about the world and share your ideas… best of all stay connected.
In contrast to the metropolitan hubs of the surrounding Richmond, Lynchburg, and northern Virginia areas, Farmville has a good ol’ small town feel.
Today, a statue of a confederate soldier stands across from the University’s iconic Ruffner rotunda as a historical reminder of civil war history in the town.
You could also think of it as a lock and key. The key must match the lock in order for the lock to work. For this reason only the correct substrate will fit and bind to it’s appropriate receptor. Opioid drugs have found a way to copy the key and open the same lock.
Health Hatch 